ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a matter of pleasure and privilege to acknowledge my profound gratitude to all those who helped me I completing this project on mensuration . It would never have been possible without the support of my parents. I am also grateful to my school for allowing me to used the library and internet facility at or according to my will and my teachers for their academic guidences and support.
INTRODUCTION
Mensuration is a branch of mathematics which deals with the surface area and volume of solid figures and areas of plane figures . whenever we look , usually we see solids. The figures that can be drawn on our note books or blackboards are called plane figures. Eg. Rectangles , squares, circles etc. If we cut many of these plane figures of the same shape and size from cardboard sheet and stack them up in a vertical pile . by this we obtain some plane figures such as cuboid , cylinder, cube , etc. In Mensuration , we came to know about the surface area and volume of solid figures .
SOLID
The body occuping space are called solids . the solid bodies ocuurs in various shapes such as : a cuboid, a cube, a cylinder, a cone , a sphere , etc.
VOLUME OF SOLID
The space occupied by a solid body is called its volume .
The units of volume are cubic centimeters or cubic meters .
MEASUREMENT OF AREA AND VOLUME
Length
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 milimeters (mm)
1 decimeter(dm) = 10 centimeter
1 meter(m) = 10 dm
= 100 cm
= 1000mm
1 decameter (dam) = 10 meter
= 1000 cm
1 hectometer (hm) = 10 dam = 100 m
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meter = 100 dam = 10 hm
1 mynameter = 10 kilometer .
Area
1 cm ² = 1 cm x 1 cm = 10 mm x 10 mm = 100mm²
1 dm² = 1 dm x 1 dm = 10 cm x 10 cm = 100 cm²
1m² = 1 m x1m = 10 dm x 10 dm = 100 dm ²
1dam² = 1dam x 1dam = 10 m x 10 m = 100 m ²
1 hm² = 1 hectare = 1 hm x 1 hm = 100 m x 100m = 10,000m ² = 100 dm ²
1km ² = 1 km x 1 km = 10 hm x 10 hm = 100 hm² or 100hectare .
Volume
1cm³ = 1ml = 1cmx 1cm x 1 cm = 10mm x 10mm x 10 mm = 1000mm³
1 litre = 1000 ml = 1000cm³
1m³ = 1m x 1m x 1m = 100cm x 100cm x 100cm = (10³)² cm³ = 1000 litre = 1 kiloletre .
1 dm ³ = 1000m³ .
1m³ = 1000dm³ .
1km = (10³)³ m³.
Faces
Surfaces of a figure and object is known as its faces .
Edges
Any two adjacent faces of a cuboid meet in a line segment , which is an edge of the cuboid .
Vertex
For any two edges that meet at an end point , there is a third edge , that also meets them at that end point . this point of intersection of three degrees of a cuboid is called the vertex of the cuboid.
Base and lateral faces
Any face of a cuboid may be called the base of the cuboid . In that case , the four aces which meet the base are called the lateral face of the cuboid .
Solid cuboid
A solid cuboid or a cuboid or a cuboidal region in the part of space bounded by the size faces of a cuboid.
Solid cube
A solid cube is the part of the space enclosed by the size faces of the cube.
Axis
The line segment joining the centers of 2 bases is called the axis of the cylinder.
CUBOID
Surface area of cuboid
Area of face ABCD = Area of face EFCD = (lxb) cm²
Area of face AEHD = Area of face BEFC = (bxh)cm²
Area of faceABFE = Area of face DHGC = (lxh)cm²
Total surface area of the cuboid
= sum of the area of the cuboid
= 2(l x b) + 2(b x h) + 2(l x h)cm²
=2(l x b) + (b x h) + (l x h) cm²
= 2(lb+bh+lh)cm²
=2(length x breadth+breadth x height+height x length)
Lateral surface area of the cuboid
= area of face AEHD + area of face BEGC + area of face ABEF + area of face DHGC
=2(b x h) + 2(l x h)
=2(l + b) x h
perimeter of base x height
Diagonal of the cuboid
= root l² + b² + h²
Length of all 12 edges of the cuboid
=4(l+b+h)
Volume of the cuboid
= area of the rectangular sheet x h
= (l x b) x h
= area of base x height
= length x breadth x height
D C
E
H G
A B
F
CUBE
Surface area of a cube
=2(l x l + l x l + l x l)
=2 x 3l²
=6l²
6(edge)²
Lateral surface area of cube
= 2(I x l + l x l)
= 2(l² +l²)
= 4l²
=4(edge)²
Diagonal of a cube
= root 3l
Length of all 12 sides of the cube
= 12 l
Volume of cube
= l x l x l x l
= l³
= (edge)³
CYLINDER
Base
Each of the circular ends on which the cylinder rests is called base.
Radius
The radius of circular base is called radius of cylinder.
Lateral surface area
2пrh
Each base surface area
пr²
Total surface area
2пr(h + r)
Each base surface area of hollow cylinder
п(R² - r²)
Curved surface area of hollow cylinder
2п(R + r) (h + R – r) sq. units
Volume of a right circular cylinder
=Area of base x height
= пr² h
Volume of material in hollow cylinder
=Exterior volume – Interior volume
=пr²h – пr²h
=пh (R² - r²) units
CONE
Base
A right circular cone has a plane end , which is in circular shape. This is called the base of the cone.
Slant height
The length of the line segment joining the vertex to any point on the circular edge of the base is called slant height.
Curved surface area of cone
=1/2 x ore length x radius
=1/2 x 2пr x l
=пrl
Total surface area of cone
=curved surface area + area of base
=пrl + пr²
=пr (l +r)
Slant height
=√r² + h²
Volume of cone
= 1/3 (пr²) x h
=1/3 x area of base x height
Note
3(volume of cone of radius (r) and height (h) = volume of cylinder of
Radius (r) & height (h)
SPHERE
The set of all parts in space which are equidistant from a fixed points is called a sphere.
Diameter
A line segment through the centre of a sphere , and with the end points on the sphere is called the diameter of the sphere.
Surface area of sphere
4пr² sq. units
Volume of sphere
4/3пr³ cubic units
HEMISPHERE AND SPHERICAL SHELL
Hemisphere
A plane through the centre of the sphere divides the sphere into two equal parts , each of which is called a hemisphere.
Spherical shell
The difference of two solid concentric spheres is called a spherical shell.
Curved surface area of hemisphere
2пr² sq. units
Total surface area of hemisphere
=2пr² + пr²
=3пr²sq. units
Volume of hemisphere
2/3 пr³
Total surface area of a hemispherical shell
4пr² sq. units
Volume of spherical shell
4/3п (R³ - r³) cubic units
Volume of hemispherical shell
2/3п (R³ - r³) cubic units
Frustum of the cone
Frustum
If a right circular cone is cut off by a plane parallel to its base , then the portion of the cone between the cutting plane and the base of the cone is called the frustum of the cone.
Height
The height or thickness of a frustum is the perpendicular distance between its two circular bases.
Slant height
The slant height of a frustum of a right circular cone is the length of the line segment joining the extremities of two parallel radii , drawn in the same direction of the two circular bases.
Volume of the frustum
= п/3(r1² + r2² + r3²)h
Lateral surface area
= п (r1 + r2)
Total surface area
П {(r1 + r2) l + r1² + r2²}
Slant height of the frustum
√h² + (r1 – r2)
Height of the cone of which frustum is a part
Hr/r1 – r2
Slant height of the cone of which frustum is a part
Lr1/r1 – r2
Volume of the frustum
h/3{A1 + A2 + √A1 x A2} , where A1 and A2 denote the areas of circular bases of the frustum.
BIBLOGRAPHY
I able to make this project ‘MENSURATION’ with the help of same book and internet sites. I took the reference of books ‘Maths NCERT book of class Xth ‘Maths NCERT book of lXth Mathematics class Xth and lXth by R.D. sharma Mthematics class Xth and lXth by R.S aggarwal. I also called this information from internet by using yahoo! and google! Search engines.
Saturday, January 2, 2010
AGRO NAD FOREST BASED INDUSTRIES
Agro and Forest Based Industries
i) Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Due to the varied agro-climatic environment, Nepal is very rich in medicinal and aromatic plants with over 700 plant species. The collection of such plants from wild sources has been practiced since ancient times. With the establishment of the Royal Drugs Research Laboratory in 1962, the commercial utilization of medicinal plants has been encouraged. More than 300 species have been screened and studied and extraction of diosgenin, reserpine, alkaloids of belladonna, glycosides of digitalis, lemon grass oil, rosin, turpentine and menthol has commenced. Nepal, a traditional exporter of crude herbs, is now gradually emerging as an exporter of processed herbs and aromatic plants. In recent times, commercial cultivation of medicinal plants such as atropa belladonna and aromatic plants such as palmarosa, lemon grass, citronella and mentha arvensis have assumed importance. Recent studies also indicate good prospects for the cultivation and processing of chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (pyrethrum), claviceps purpurea (Ergot), digitalis lanata, eucalyptus camaldulensis, glycyrrhiza flabra, mucuna pruriens, piper longum and valeriana wallichi.The medicinal and aromatic plants can be exploited for the production of the following: essential oils from lemon grass, citronella, palmarosa and mint, oleoresin from ginger, large cardamoms, timur and tejpat, turpentine oil and rosin from chirpine, medicines from valeriana wallichi, calamus acrous and nardostachye jatamashi. In addition to traditional medicines and essential oils, herbs and essences also have a potential as a raw material for the production of cosmetics and perfumes, herbal teas and natural health products.
ii) Vegetable Seed Production
A wide variation in agro-climatic regions from tropical to temperate and alpine climates provides opportunities to produce seeds of a wide range of varieties. More importantly, the pockets of micro-climates separated by high mountains provide ideal environment where the risk of loosing parental lines of high value seeds is minimal. Vegetable seed production is undertaken in 15 different areas with the following 4 special areas highly successful in the production of a variety of seeds : Thak Khola Marpha in the Western Development Region (elevation 2516 m.) - cabbage, carrot, cress, peas, turnip, broad leaf mustard; Musikot in the Mid-Western Development Region (elevation 1460 m.) - onion, radish, cauliflower, peas, turnip, spinach, capsicum, knoll-kohl; Kathmandu Valley in the Central Development Region (elevation 1350 m.) - cauliflower, cress, spinach, turnip, radish, broad leaf mustard; Sarlahi in the Central Development Region (elevation 60 m.) - tomato, egg plant, cucurbits, capsicum, spinach, peas and okra. Nepal has well qualified vegetable seed agronomists and vegetable seed breeders. The vegetable development division in the Department of Agriculture has many regional farms located in different agro-climatic regions with well equipped production, cleaning and storage facilities. The division is providing technical supervision and quality control services through well equipped seed testing laboratories.
Very good potential exists in Nepal for the establishment of vegetable seed farms catering to both domestic and foreign markets. Potential markets in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Thailand could be developed successfully. The seed quality standards in these countries are close to Nepalese seed standards. Export markets in American and European countries too could be tapped with the participation of investors from these countries.
iii) Flower Seeds Due to varying agro-climatic conditions, Nepal is in an unique position to produce a wide variety of flowering seeds which could be sold in international markets. In the summer season, zinnia, marigold, gladiolus, salvia, dahlia, canna are grown extensively. In winter and spring, most of the annual flowers such as bellies, dianthus, pansy, antirrhinum, helichrysum, aapaver, verbena, sun flower and so on are grown. The potential for seed production of the following varieties, in particular, has been identified as being very high: anemone sp., aster, chrysanthemum morifolium, elsholtzia Californica (California poppies), lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea).
The availability of varied climatic conditions and easily trainable labour provide Nepal comparative advantage to produce flower seeds at low cost. Commercial production and export of flower seed require maintenance of high technical standards and good supervision. Technology and expertise of foreign companies could be effectively employed to develop this profitable agro-business in Nepal.
iv) Vegetable Production for Export
A variety of agro-climatic regions and fertile soils permits the production of a wide variety of vegetables of good quality in Nepal. The major items of vegetables grown on a commercial scale are cabbage, carrot, turnip, radish, cauliflower, peas, capsicum,. egg plant, tomato, okra, beans and cucumber. The major centres of vegetable production are in Kathmandu Valley and in the Dhanusha, Sarlahi, Bara, Makawanpur and Chitwan district. Almost the entire production of vegetables is consumed within the country, though some exports to India and Tibet are taking place. Recently, the production of snow peas for export to Japan has got off to satisfactory start and other items like French beans are to be produced for export. This has clearly demonstrated the potential which exists for the production of a few special varieties of vegetables on a commercial scale for export. Foreign investment for the scientific cultivation of vegetables for export would be a profitable business.
v) Fruit Processing
Nepal is endowed with good ecological conditions for the cultivation of a variety of fruits. At present, citrus fruits, apple, banana, pineapple, mango, pear, litchi, guava, peach, plum and apricot are available in sufficiently large quantities. Plans are also underway to increase the area under cultivation through commercial fruit development programmes. The total quantity of fruits produced is estimated around 500,000 mt. Fruit processing industries consume a fair proportion of total production. Some small fruit processing industries are engaged in the production of fruit squash, fruit juice, jams, jellies, marmalades and fruit salad. Some of these products are exported from Nepal. Opportunities exist for the setting up of industries to process fruits for sale in export markets as fruit juices and squash, jams and jellies and fruit based special liquors.
vi) Tea Development
Nepal has commenced commercial production of tea only in comparatively recent times. The Nepal Tea Development Corporation, a government agency, owns seven tea gardens with a total area of around 880 hectares. In addition, the private sector owns tea gardens with a total area of around 1250 hectares. These tea growing areas are in the Eastern districts of Ilam, Jhapa, Panchthar, Terhathum and Dhankuta, almost adjacent to the world renowned tea gardens of Darjeeling in India.
The government has given high priority to increase tea production in the Eastern Districts with a view to achieving self-sufficiency in tea and to export high quality tea to overseas markets. In order to encourage tea cultivation, an exemption from the land ceiling has been provided together with attractive incentives. Good prospects exist for the production of quality orthodox tea in Nepal similar to the Darjeeling tea produced in India. Improved cultural practices, latest technical know-how and efficient management systems are required to bring the tea industry in line with other tea producing countries in the region.
vii) Sericulture
The development of sericulture has been identified as offering very good prospects for development in the mid-hills and Terai belt of Nepal by experts from Japan, Korea, China and India. Agro-climatic conditions in these areas favour the cultivation of mulberry and the rearing of cocoons. The Government has set up a nucleus center at Khopasi (Kabhrepalanchwok) about 35 km. east of Kathmandu since 1975. The center initially served as a demonstration center and later expanded its activities to provide training, extension and research functions. Since 1991/92, it also functions as a major silkworm egg breeding station. Nepal has developed six bivoltine lines and these will be used to produce hybrid silkworm eggs in the country. The preferred production technology in Nepal is the temperate bivoltine technology which is simple and easily adaptable by small farmers.
On a very preliminary assessment, mulberry cultivation could be extended over an extent of 6,000 hectares which could yield around 350 tonnes of raw silk and 85 tonnes of waste silk. The value of silk fabric from this level of production could exceed Rs. 1800 mln. Private investment to encourage mulberry cultivation and cocoon rearing by small farmers could be developed successfully in Nepal. Post cocoon activities involving reeling, twisting, weaving and production of items out of silk fabric could be developed as medium-scale industries.
viii) Integrated Dairy Industry
Nepal has a long tradition in dairy farming. In fact, Nepal has in the past exported milk products to India and Tibet in the form of ghee and butter. She could develop the dairy industry to meet domestic demand as well as renew exports to India and other markets. Good prospects exist to produce yak cheese in high altitude for export to overseas markets. The topographical and climatic conditions are well suited to dairy development. An integrated dairy industry incorporating related activities such as improved livestock breeding, cattle feed production and processing of milk products would offer promising prospects for profitable investment. Such a project could be built up on existing small dairy units spread around the country through a well organized program of extension services to improve livestock breeds and an efficient collection system for processing in a central unit.
ix) Floriculture
Due to the variations in climate, topography and vegetation, Nepal has a diversity of ornamental plants and flowering plants which could be scientifically cultivated to promote export oriented business. The flower and orchid industries are increasing in the country. The commercial development of floriculture is still in a very early stage of development. The development of tissue culture initiated by the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory at Godavari is opening up opportunities for mass production of flowers which could be exported from Nepal. Already tissue culture method of propagation has been successfully developed in the production of orchids and other cut flowers. Some of the orchid genera which have been successfully developed are coelogyne, cymbidium, dendrobium, epidedron and vanda. Among the other cut flower species carnations and chrysanthemums have also been similarly developed. Prospects for the development of floriculture business are excellent especially for the following species of orchids: cymbidiums, dendrobiums, calanthe, coelogyne. Similarly in other cut flowers carnations, gerbera, rose, gladiolus primulinus, iris polyanthes, chrysanthemum, narcissus tazella offer very good prospects. The varieties of exotic orchids-paphiopedilun, cattelya, cattelya hybrids, arachris, epidendron, mokara, oncidium and odontoglossums; exotic cut flowers - tulipa, anthurium, alstroemeria, freesia and gysophila have good prospects for commercial production.
Foreign collaboration for the development of floriculture to provide technical know-how for cultivation of flowers is required to meet the standards demanded in international markets and to provide guidance in market identification and development. The availability of direct flight connections to Frankfurt, London, Dubai, New Delhi, Singapore, Osaka, Hong Kong and Paris offer good prospects for the development of a profitable export oriented floriculture business in Nepal.
x) Processing of Spices
Nepal produces a large variety of species such as ginger, timur, large cardamom, turmeric, medicinal spicy herbs, himali cummin, cinnamon, garlic and a variety of chillies. Most of the spices cater to domestic demand and some items like chilli, turmeric, garlic, ginger and cardamom are exported to India and other markets in a raw form.
Good prospects exist for the setting up of spice processing industries using automatic, dehydration, cleaning and packing technology to export increased value added products. Foreign collaboration is required to provide technical know-how for processing and packaging and to secure marketing outlets.
xi) Mushroom Cultivation
Many varieties of edible mushrooms are found in a wild state in the Terai lowlands, the hills and mountains of Nepal. Two rare varieties similar to European types known as "Guchchi" and Cordyceps (Yarsha Gumba) are found in the hills and mountains under natural conditions. Among the cultivated varieties, agaricus bisporus, pleorotus spp. and volvariella are important. The temperature and humidity conditions necessary for growing agaricus bisporus (bottom mushroom) are very satisfactory in the hilly regions during some seasons. The pleorotus spp. (oyster mushroom) and volvariella (paddystraw mushroom) grow easily during most seasons. Kathmandu Valley has temperature, humidity and other biological factors suitable for the cultivation of these two varieties of mushrooms throughout the year. The Plant Pathology Section of the Department of Agriculture's Research Station at Khumaltar (Kathmandu Valley) is producing mushroom spawn. This unit has well qualified staff to undertake research, spawn production and for extension work.The potential for mushroom production on a commercial scale is good especially with a view to marketing overseas as fresh mushroom, dried mushroom and canned mushroom.
Xii) Coffee Processing
Coffee beans are produced in Western Development Region of the country. Though the international coffee price has increased sharply, the coffee farmers in Nepal are getting not more than 50 cents. a kg. Establishment of small scale coffee processing plant would encourage the farmers to grow more coffee beans. This industry can substitute the import and also export high quality chemical free coffee.
i) Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Due to the varied agro-climatic environment, Nepal is very rich in medicinal and aromatic plants with over 700 plant species. The collection of such plants from wild sources has been practiced since ancient times. With the establishment of the Royal Drugs Research Laboratory in 1962, the commercial utilization of medicinal plants has been encouraged. More than 300 species have been screened and studied and extraction of diosgenin, reserpine, alkaloids of belladonna, glycosides of digitalis, lemon grass oil, rosin, turpentine and menthol has commenced. Nepal, a traditional exporter of crude herbs, is now gradually emerging as an exporter of processed herbs and aromatic plants. In recent times, commercial cultivation of medicinal plants such as atropa belladonna and aromatic plants such as palmarosa, lemon grass, citronella and mentha arvensis have assumed importance. Recent studies also indicate good prospects for the cultivation and processing of chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (pyrethrum), claviceps purpurea (Ergot), digitalis lanata, eucalyptus camaldulensis, glycyrrhiza flabra, mucuna pruriens, piper longum and valeriana wallichi.The medicinal and aromatic plants can be exploited for the production of the following: essential oils from lemon grass, citronella, palmarosa and mint, oleoresin from ginger, large cardamoms, timur and tejpat, turpentine oil and rosin from chirpine, medicines from valeriana wallichi, calamus acrous and nardostachye jatamashi. In addition to traditional medicines and essential oils, herbs and essences also have a potential as a raw material for the production of cosmetics and perfumes, herbal teas and natural health products.
ii) Vegetable Seed Production
A wide variation in agro-climatic regions from tropical to temperate and alpine climates provides opportunities to produce seeds of a wide range of varieties. More importantly, the pockets of micro-climates separated by high mountains provide ideal environment where the risk of loosing parental lines of high value seeds is minimal. Vegetable seed production is undertaken in 15 different areas with the following 4 special areas highly successful in the production of a variety of seeds : Thak Khola Marpha in the Western Development Region (elevation 2516 m.) - cabbage, carrot, cress, peas, turnip, broad leaf mustard; Musikot in the Mid-Western Development Region (elevation 1460 m.) - onion, radish, cauliflower, peas, turnip, spinach, capsicum, knoll-kohl; Kathmandu Valley in the Central Development Region (elevation 1350 m.) - cauliflower, cress, spinach, turnip, radish, broad leaf mustard; Sarlahi in the Central Development Region (elevation 60 m.) - tomato, egg plant, cucurbits, capsicum, spinach, peas and okra. Nepal has well qualified vegetable seed agronomists and vegetable seed breeders. The vegetable development division in the Department of Agriculture has many regional farms located in different agro-climatic regions with well equipped production, cleaning and storage facilities. The division is providing technical supervision and quality control services through well equipped seed testing laboratories.
Very good potential exists in Nepal for the establishment of vegetable seed farms catering to both domestic and foreign markets. Potential markets in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Thailand could be developed successfully. The seed quality standards in these countries are close to Nepalese seed standards. Export markets in American and European countries too could be tapped with the participation of investors from these countries.
iii) Flower Seeds Due to varying agro-climatic conditions, Nepal is in an unique position to produce a wide variety of flowering seeds which could be sold in international markets. In the summer season, zinnia, marigold, gladiolus, salvia, dahlia, canna are grown extensively. In winter and spring, most of the annual flowers such as bellies, dianthus, pansy, antirrhinum, helichrysum, aapaver, verbena, sun flower and so on are grown. The potential for seed production of the following varieties, in particular, has been identified as being very high: anemone sp., aster, chrysanthemum morifolium, elsholtzia Californica (California poppies), lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea).
The availability of varied climatic conditions and easily trainable labour provide Nepal comparative advantage to produce flower seeds at low cost. Commercial production and export of flower seed require maintenance of high technical standards and good supervision. Technology and expertise of foreign companies could be effectively employed to develop this profitable agro-business in Nepal.
iv) Vegetable Production for Export
A variety of agro-climatic regions and fertile soils permits the production of a wide variety of vegetables of good quality in Nepal. The major items of vegetables grown on a commercial scale are cabbage, carrot, turnip, radish, cauliflower, peas, capsicum,. egg plant, tomato, okra, beans and cucumber. The major centres of vegetable production are in Kathmandu Valley and in the Dhanusha, Sarlahi, Bara, Makawanpur and Chitwan district. Almost the entire production of vegetables is consumed within the country, though some exports to India and Tibet are taking place. Recently, the production of snow peas for export to Japan has got off to satisfactory start and other items like French beans are to be produced for export. This has clearly demonstrated the potential which exists for the production of a few special varieties of vegetables on a commercial scale for export. Foreign investment for the scientific cultivation of vegetables for export would be a profitable business.
v) Fruit Processing
Nepal is endowed with good ecological conditions for the cultivation of a variety of fruits. At present, citrus fruits, apple, banana, pineapple, mango, pear, litchi, guava, peach, plum and apricot are available in sufficiently large quantities. Plans are also underway to increase the area under cultivation through commercial fruit development programmes. The total quantity of fruits produced is estimated around 500,000 mt. Fruit processing industries consume a fair proportion of total production. Some small fruit processing industries are engaged in the production of fruit squash, fruit juice, jams, jellies, marmalades and fruit salad. Some of these products are exported from Nepal. Opportunities exist for the setting up of industries to process fruits for sale in export markets as fruit juices and squash, jams and jellies and fruit based special liquors.
vi) Tea Development
Nepal has commenced commercial production of tea only in comparatively recent times. The Nepal Tea Development Corporation, a government agency, owns seven tea gardens with a total area of around 880 hectares. In addition, the private sector owns tea gardens with a total area of around 1250 hectares. These tea growing areas are in the Eastern districts of Ilam, Jhapa, Panchthar, Terhathum and Dhankuta, almost adjacent to the world renowned tea gardens of Darjeeling in India.
The government has given high priority to increase tea production in the Eastern Districts with a view to achieving self-sufficiency in tea and to export high quality tea to overseas markets. In order to encourage tea cultivation, an exemption from the land ceiling has been provided together with attractive incentives. Good prospects exist for the production of quality orthodox tea in Nepal similar to the Darjeeling tea produced in India. Improved cultural practices, latest technical know-how and efficient management systems are required to bring the tea industry in line with other tea producing countries in the region.
vii) Sericulture
The development of sericulture has been identified as offering very good prospects for development in the mid-hills and Terai belt of Nepal by experts from Japan, Korea, China and India. Agro-climatic conditions in these areas favour the cultivation of mulberry and the rearing of cocoons. The Government has set up a nucleus center at Khopasi (Kabhrepalanchwok) about 35 km. east of Kathmandu since 1975. The center initially served as a demonstration center and later expanded its activities to provide training, extension and research functions. Since 1991/92, it also functions as a major silkworm egg breeding station. Nepal has developed six bivoltine lines and these will be used to produce hybrid silkworm eggs in the country. The preferred production technology in Nepal is the temperate bivoltine technology which is simple and easily adaptable by small farmers.
On a very preliminary assessment, mulberry cultivation could be extended over an extent of 6,000 hectares which could yield around 350 tonnes of raw silk and 85 tonnes of waste silk. The value of silk fabric from this level of production could exceed Rs. 1800 mln. Private investment to encourage mulberry cultivation and cocoon rearing by small farmers could be developed successfully in Nepal. Post cocoon activities involving reeling, twisting, weaving and production of items out of silk fabric could be developed as medium-scale industries.
viii) Integrated Dairy Industry
Nepal has a long tradition in dairy farming. In fact, Nepal has in the past exported milk products to India and Tibet in the form of ghee and butter. She could develop the dairy industry to meet domestic demand as well as renew exports to India and other markets. Good prospects exist to produce yak cheese in high altitude for export to overseas markets. The topographical and climatic conditions are well suited to dairy development. An integrated dairy industry incorporating related activities such as improved livestock breeding, cattle feed production and processing of milk products would offer promising prospects for profitable investment. Such a project could be built up on existing small dairy units spread around the country through a well organized program of extension services to improve livestock breeds and an efficient collection system for processing in a central unit.
ix) Floriculture
Due to the variations in climate, topography and vegetation, Nepal has a diversity of ornamental plants and flowering plants which could be scientifically cultivated to promote export oriented business. The flower and orchid industries are increasing in the country. The commercial development of floriculture is still in a very early stage of development. The development of tissue culture initiated by the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory at Godavari is opening up opportunities for mass production of flowers which could be exported from Nepal. Already tissue culture method of propagation has been successfully developed in the production of orchids and other cut flowers. Some of the orchid genera which have been successfully developed are coelogyne, cymbidium, dendrobium, epidedron and vanda. Among the other cut flower species carnations and chrysanthemums have also been similarly developed. Prospects for the development of floriculture business are excellent especially for the following species of orchids: cymbidiums, dendrobiums, calanthe, coelogyne. Similarly in other cut flowers carnations, gerbera, rose, gladiolus primulinus, iris polyanthes, chrysanthemum, narcissus tazella offer very good prospects. The varieties of exotic orchids-paphiopedilun, cattelya, cattelya hybrids, arachris, epidendron, mokara, oncidium and odontoglossums; exotic cut flowers - tulipa, anthurium, alstroemeria, freesia and gysophila have good prospects for commercial production.
Foreign collaboration for the development of floriculture to provide technical know-how for cultivation of flowers is required to meet the standards demanded in international markets and to provide guidance in market identification and development. The availability of direct flight connections to Frankfurt, London, Dubai, New Delhi, Singapore, Osaka, Hong Kong and Paris offer good prospects for the development of a profitable export oriented floriculture business in Nepal.
x) Processing of Spices
Nepal produces a large variety of species such as ginger, timur, large cardamom, turmeric, medicinal spicy herbs, himali cummin, cinnamon, garlic and a variety of chillies. Most of the spices cater to domestic demand and some items like chilli, turmeric, garlic, ginger and cardamom are exported to India and other markets in a raw form.
Good prospects exist for the setting up of spice processing industries using automatic, dehydration, cleaning and packing technology to export increased value added products. Foreign collaboration is required to provide technical know-how for processing and packaging and to secure marketing outlets.
xi) Mushroom Cultivation
Many varieties of edible mushrooms are found in a wild state in the Terai lowlands, the hills and mountains of Nepal. Two rare varieties similar to European types known as "Guchchi" and Cordyceps (Yarsha Gumba) are found in the hills and mountains under natural conditions. Among the cultivated varieties, agaricus bisporus, pleorotus spp. and volvariella are important. The temperature and humidity conditions necessary for growing agaricus bisporus (bottom mushroom) are very satisfactory in the hilly regions during some seasons. The pleorotus spp. (oyster mushroom) and volvariella (paddystraw mushroom) grow easily during most seasons. Kathmandu Valley has temperature, humidity and other biological factors suitable for the cultivation of these two varieties of mushrooms throughout the year. The Plant Pathology Section of the Department of Agriculture's Research Station at Khumaltar (Kathmandu Valley) is producing mushroom spawn. This unit has well qualified staff to undertake research, spawn production and for extension work.The potential for mushroom production on a commercial scale is good especially with a view to marketing overseas as fresh mushroom, dried mushroom and canned mushroom.
Xii) Coffee Processing
Coffee beans are produced in Western Development Region of the country. Though the international coffee price has increased sharply, the coffee farmers in Nepal are getting not more than 50 cents. a kg. Establishment of small scale coffee processing plant would encourage the farmers to grow more coffee beans. This industry can substitute the import and also export high quality chemical free coffee.
The Industry
industry
The terms industry and sector are often used interchangeably to describe a group of companies that operate in the same segment of the economy or share a similar business type. Although the terms are commonly used interchangeably, they do, in fact, have slightly different meanings. This difference pertains to their scope; a sector refers to a large segment of the economy, while the term industry describes a much more specific group of companies or businesses. A sector is one of a few general segments in the economy within which a large group of companies can be categorized. An economy can be broken down into about a dozen sectors, which can describe nearly all of the business activity in that economy. For example, the basic materials sector is the segment of the economy in which companies deal in the business of exploration, processing and selling the basic materials such as gold, silver or aluminum which are used by other sectors of the economy. An industry, on the other hand, describes a much more specific grouping of companies with highly similar business activities. Essentially, industries are created by further breaking down sectors into more defined groupings. Each of the dozen or so sectors will have a varying number of industries, but it can be in the hundreds. For example, the financial sector can be broken down into industries such as asset management, life insurance and Northwest regional banks. The Northwest regional bank industry, which is part of the financial sector, will only contain companies that operate banks in the Northwestern states. factors influence location of industry
1. Raw materials: Industries that use large quantities of bulky materials tend to be located near to the source of these materials (see notes on the iron and steel industry, above). The influence of location in raw materials has declined in recent times due to the improvements in transport and efficiencies in their use.
2. Energy: Coalfields were the original energy source that attracted industry. In many cases this has been replaced by hydro-electric power (H.E.P.) and oil, sources that can be distributed more easily. However, some energy-intensive industries such as smelting need to be near cheap and abundant power supplies, e.g., some of the industries using H.E.P. in Norway.
3. Labour force: Early industrial development led to a drift from the land to the cities and this helped build up a large and eventually skilled labour force in the cities of, for example, England. In many cases nowadays, mechanisation has reduced the requirements of a larger skilled workforce. Labour costs are also of great importance and many companies have begun to move production to the cheaper labour markets or Eastern Europe.
4. Transport: All industries require a good transport system to permit the importing of raw materials and the exporting of finished products. Modern developments in transport have made it more efficient and more cost effective. Industrial location has thus dispersed from its traditional locations. This has been important in peripheral areas, e.g., Southern Italy (see notes on Problem Regions in the Regional Geography section.)
5. Access to markets: The EU contains a large market that has high purchasing power. The well-established urban structure enables manufacturers to reach their markets easily. The Ranstad, Paris, London (see Core and Periphery in the Regional Geography section hyperlink are important examples of these large concentrated, wealthy markets.
6. Political influence: The laissez-faire (non-interference) attitude of governments in the past has been replaced by an approach whereby government grants, retraining schemes, etc., are a major influence on the location of industry.
Regional planning on a large scale, such as the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno in Southern Italy (see Problem Regions in the Regional Geography section) has been important in bringing industry to many areas within Europe.
EU Structural Funds and regional policy in general has been very important also in the overall spread of industrial employment (see European Union and Policies in the Regional Geography section.)
India Textile Industry
India Textile Industry is one of the leading textile industries in the world. Though was predominantly unorganized industry even a few years back, but the scenario started changing after the economic liberalization of Indian economy in 1991. The opening up of economy gave the much-needed thrust to the Indian textile industry, which has now successfully become one of the largest in the world. India textile industry largely depends upon the textile manufacturing and export. It also plays a major role in the economy of the country. India earns about 27% of its total foreign exchange through textile exports. Further, the textile industry of India also contributes nearly 14% of the total industrial production of the country. It also contributes around 3% to the GDP of the country. India textile industry is also the largest in the country in terms of employment generation. It not only generates jobs in its own industry, but also opens up scopes for the other ancillary sectors. India textile industry currently generates employment to more than 35 million people. It is also estimated that, the industry will generate 12 million new jobs by the year 2010.
Various Categories
Indian textile industry can be divided into several segments, some of which can be listed as below:
· Cotton Textiles
· Silk Textiles
· Woolen Textiles
· Readymade Garments
· Hand-crafted Textiles
· Jute and Coir
The Industry
India textile industry is one of the leading in the world. Currently it is estimated to be around US$ 52 billion and is also projected to be around US$ 115 billion by the year 2012. The current domestic market of textile in India is expected to be increased to US$ 60 billion by 2012 from the current US$ 34.6 billion. The textile export of the country was around US$ 19.14 billion in 2006-07, which saw a stiff rise to reach US$ 22.13 in 2007-08. The share of exports is also expected to increase from 4% to 7% within 2012. Following are area, production and productivity of cotton in India during the last six decades: .extratable, .extratable td { border:1px dotted #ccc; font-size:12px; color:#050F96; }
The terms industry and sector are often used interchangeably to describe a group of companies that operate in the same segment of the economy or share a similar business type. Although the terms are commonly used interchangeably, they do, in fact, have slightly different meanings. This difference pertains to their scope; a sector refers to a large segment of the economy, while the term industry describes a much more specific group of companies or businesses. A sector is one of a few general segments in the economy within which a large group of companies can be categorized. An economy can be broken down into about a dozen sectors, which can describe nearly all of the business activity in that economy. For example, the basic materials sector is the segment of the economy in which companies deal in the business of exploration, processing and selling the basic materials such as gold, silver or aluminum which are used by other sectors of the economy. An industry, on the other hand, describes a much more specific grouping of companies with highly similar business activities. Essentially, industries are created by further breaking down sectors into more defined groupings. Each of the dozen or so sectors will have a varying number of industries, but it can be in the hundreds. For example, the financial sector can be broken down into industries such as asset management, life insurance and Northwest regional banks. The Northwest regional bank industry, which is part of the financial sector, will only contain companies that operate banks in the Northwestern states. factors influence location of industry
1. Raw materials: Industries that use large quantities of bulky materials tend to be located near to the source of these materials (see notes on the iron and steel industry, above). The influence of location in raw materials has declined in recent times due to the improvements in transport and efficiencies in their use.
2. Energy: Coalfields were the original energy source that attracted industry. In many cases this has been replaced by hydro-electric power (H.E.P.) and oil, sources that can be distributed more easily. However, some energy-intensive industries such as smelting need to be near cheap and abundant power supplies, e.g., some of the industries using H.E.P. in Norway.
3. Labour force: Early industrial development led to a drift from the land to the cities and this helped build up a large and eventually skilled labour force in the cities of, for example, England. In many cases nowadays, mechanisation has reduced the requirements of a larger skilled workforce. Labour costs are also of great importance and many companies have begun to move production to the cheaper labour markets or Eastern Europe.
4. Transport: All industries require a good transport system to permit the importing of raw materials and the exporting of finished products. Modern developments in transport have made it more efficient and more cost effective. Industrial location has thus dispersed from its traditional locations. This has been important in peripheral areas, e.g., Southern Italy (see notes on Problem Regions in the Regional Geography section.)
5. Access to markets: The EU contains a large market that has high purchasing power. The well-established urban structure enables manufacturers to reach their markets easily. The Ranstad, Paris, London (see Core and Periphery in the Regional Geography section hyperlink are important examples of these large concentrated, wealthy markets.
6. Political influence: The laissez-faire (non-interference) attitude of governments in the past has been replaced by an approach whereby government grants, retraining schemes, etc., are a major influence on the location of industry.
Regional planning on a large scale, such as the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno in Southern Italy (see Problem Regions in the Regional Geography section) has been important in bringing industry to many areas within Europe.
EU Structural Funds and regional policy in general has been very important also in the overall spread of industrial employment (see European Union and Policies in the Regional Geography section.)
India Textile Industry
India Textile Industry is one of the leading textile industries in the world. Though was predominantly unorganized industry even a few years back, but the scenario started changing after the economic liberalization of Indian economy in 1991. The opening up of economy gave the much-needed thrust to the Indian textile industry, which has now successfully become one of the largest in the world. India textile industry largely depends upon the textile manufacturing and export. It also plays a major role in the economy of the country. India earns about 27% of its total foreign exchange through textile exports. Further, the textile industry of India also contributes nearly 14% of the total industrial production of the country. It also contributes around 3% to the GDP of the country. India textile industry is also the largest in the country in terms of employment generation. It not only generates jobs in its own industry, but also opens up scopes for the other ancillary sectors. India textile industry currently generates employment to more than 35 million people. It is also estimated that, the industry will generate 12 million new jobs by the year 2010.
Various Categories
Indian textile industry can be divided into several segments, some of which can be listed as below:
· Cotton Textiles
· Silk Textiles
· Woolen Textiles
· Readymade Garments
· Hand-crafted Textiles
· Jute and Coir
The Industry
India textile industry is one of the leading in the world. Currently it is estimated to be around US$ 52 billion and is also projected to be around US$ 115 billion by the year 2012. The current domestic market of textile in India is expected to be increased to US$ 60 billion by 2012 from the current US$ 34.6 billion. The textile export of the country was around US$ 19.14 billion in 2006-07, which saw a stiff rise to reach US$ 22.13 in 2007-08. The share of exports is also expected to increase from 4% to 7% within 2012. Following are area, production and productivity of cotton in India during the last six decades: .extratable, .extratable td { border:1px dotted #ccc; font-size:12px; color:#050F96; }
ANTI GLOBALIZATION
Antiglobalization
The "anti-globalization movement" is a term used to describe the political group who oppose the neoliberal version of globalization, while criticisms of globalization are some of the reasons used to justify this group's stance.
"Anti-globalization" may also involve the process or actions taken by a state in order to demonstrate its sovereignty and practice democratic decision-making. Anti-globalization may occur in order to maintain barriers to the international transfer of people, goods and beliefs, particularly free market deregulation, encouraged by organizations such as the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization. Moreover, as Naomi Klein argues in her book No Logo anti-globalism can denote either a single social movement or an umbrella term that encompasses a number of separate social movements such as nationalists and socialists. In either case, participants stand in opposition to the unregulated political power of large, multi-national corporations, as the corporations exercise power through leveraging trade agreements which in some instances damage the democratic rights of citizens, the environment particularly air quality index and rain forests, as well as national government's sovereignty to determine labor rights,including the right to form a union, and health and safety legislation, or laws as they may otherwise infringe on cultural practices and traditions of developing countries.
Some people who are labeled "anti-globalist" or "sceptics" (Hirst and Thompson)consider the term to be too vague and inaccurate. Podobnik states that "the vast majority of groups that participate in these protests draw on international networks of support, and they generally call for forms of globalization that enhance democratic representation, human rights, and egalitarianism."
Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Charlton write:
“
The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of globalization. The term 'anti-globalization' is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents a wide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the anti-globalization movement do support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example, aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.
”
Some members aligned with this viewpoint prefer instead to describe themselves as the "Global Justice Movement", the "Anti-Corporate-Globalization Movement", the "Movement of Movements" (a popular term in Italy), the "Alter-globalization" movement (popular in France), the "Counter-Globalization" movement, and a number of other terms.
Critiques of the current wave of economic globalization typically look at both the damage to the planet, in terms of the perceived unsustainable harm done to the biosphere, as well as the perceived human costs, such as poverty, inequality, miscegenation, injustice and the erosion of traditional culture which, the critics contend, all occur as a result of the economic transformations related to globalization. They challenge directly the metrics, such as GDP, used to measure progress promulgated by institutions such as the World Bank, and look to other measures, such as the Happy Planet Index, created by the New Economics Foundation. They point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal consequences–social disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"which they claim are the unintended but very real consequences of globalization.
The terms globalization and anti-globalization are used in various ways. Noam Chomsky believes that
“
The term "globalization" has been appropriated by the powerful to refer to a specific form of international economic integration, one based on investor rights, with the interests of people incidental. That is why the business press, in its more honest moments, refers to the "free trade agreements" as "free investment agreements" (Wall St. Journal). Accordingly, advocates of other forms of globalization are described as "anti-globalization"; and some, unfortunately, even accept this term, though it is a term of propaganda that should be dismissed with ridicule. No sane person is opposed to globalization, that is, international integration. Surely not the left and the workers movements, which were founded on the principle of international solidarity — that is, globalization in a form that attends to the rights of people, not private power systems.
”
“
The dominant propaganda systems have appropriated the term "globalization" to refer to the specific version of international economic integration that they favor, which privileges the rights of investors and lenders, those of people being incidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different form of international integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "anti-globalist." This is simply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by the most disgusting commissars to refer to dissidents. It is not only vulgar, but idiotic. Take the World Social Forum, called "anti-globalization" in the propaganda system – which happens to include the media, the educated classes, etc., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is a gathering of huge numbers of people from all over the world, from just about every corner of life one can think of, apart from the extremely narrow highly privileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic Forum, and are called "pro-globalization" by the propaganda system. An observer watching this farce from Mars would collapse in hysterical laughter at the antics of the educated classes.
”
Critics argue that:
Poorer countries suffering disadvantages: While it is true that globalization encourages free trade among countries, there are also negative consequences because some countries try to save their national markets. The main export of poorer countries is usually agricultural goods. Larger countries often subsidise their farmers (like the EU Common Agricultural Policy), which lowers the market price for the poor farmer's crops compared to what it would be under free trade.
Exploitation of foreign impoverished workers: The deterioration of protections for weaker nations by stronger industrialized powers has resulted in the exploitation of the people in those nations to become cheap labor. Due to the lack of protections, companies from powerful industrialized nations are able to offer workers enough salary to entice them to endure extremely long hours and unsafe working conditions, though economists question if consenting workers in a competitive employers' market can be decried as "exploited". It is true that the workers are free to leave their jobs, but in many poorer countries, this would mean starvation for the worker, and possible even his/her family if their previous jobs were unavailable.
The shift to outsourcing: The low cost of offshore workers have enticed corporations to buy goods and services from foreign countries. The laid off manufacturing sector workers are forced into the service sector where wages and benefits are low, but turnover is high . This has contributed to the deterioration of the middle class which is a major factor in the increasing economic inequality in the United States . Families that were once part of the middle class are forced into lower positions by massive layoffs and outsourcing to another country. This also means that people in the lower class have a much harder time climbing out of poverty because of the absence of the middle class as a stepping stone. Weak labor unions: The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies in transition has caused a weakening of labor unions in the United States. Unions lose their effectiveness when their membership begins to decline. As a result unions hold less power over corporations that are able to easily replace workers, often for lower wages, and have the option to not offer unionized jobs anymore.
Increase exploitation of child labor: for example, a country that experiencing increases in labor demand because of globalization and an increase the demand for goods produced by children, will experience greater a demand for child labor. This can be "hazardous" or “exploitive”, e.g., quarrying, salvage, cash cropping but also includes the trafficking of children, children in bondage or forced labor, prostitution, pornography and other illicit activities.
In December 2007, World Bank economist Branko Milanovic has called much previous empirical research on global poverty and inequality into question because, according to him, improved estimates of purchasing power parity indicate that developing countries are worse off than previously believed. Milanovic remarks that "literally hundreds of scholarly papers on convergence or divergence of countries’ incomes have been published in the last decade based on what we know now were faulty numbers." With the new data, possibly economists will revise calculations, and he also believed that there are considerable implications estimates of global inequality and poverty levels. Global inequality was estimated at around 65 Gini points, whereas the new numbers indicate global inequality to be at 70 on the Gini scale. It is unsurprising that the level of international inequality is so high, as larger sample spaces almost always give a higher level of inequality.
The critics of globalization typically emphasize that globalization is a process that is mediated according to corporate interests, and typically raise the possibility of alternative global institutions and policies, which they believe address the moral claims of poor and working classes throughout the globe, as well as environmental concerns in a more equitable way.
The movement is very broadincluding church groups, national liberation factions, peasant unionists, intellectuals, artists, protectionists, anarchists, those in support of relocalization and others. Some are reformist, (arguing for a more moderate form of capitalism) while others are more revolutionary (arguing for what they believe is a more humane system than capitalism) and others are reactionary, believing globalization destroys national industry and jobs.
One of the key points made by critics of recent economic globalization is that income inequality, both between and within nations, is increasing as a result of these processes. One article from 2001 found that significantly, in 7 out of 8 metrics, income inequality has increased in the twenty years ending 2001. Also, "incomes in the lower deciles of world income distribution have probably fallen absolutely since the 1980s". Furthermore, the World Bank's figures on absolute poverty were challenged. The article was skeptical of the World Bank's claim that the number of people living on less than $1 a day has held steady at 1.2 billion from 1987 to 1998, because of biased methodology.
A chart that gave the inequality a very visible and comprehensible form, the so-called 'champagne glass' effect,was contained in the 1992 United Nations Development Program Report, which showed the distribution of global income to be very uneven, with the richest 20% of the world's population controlling 82.7% of the world's income.
Distribution of world GDP, 1989
Quintile of Population
Income
Richest 20%
82.7%
Second 20%
11.7%
Third 20%
2.3%
Fourth 20%
2.4%
Poorest 20%
0.2%
Source: United Nations Development Program. 1992 Human Development Report
Economic arguments by fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.
Americanization related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and object being brought into other countries. So globalization, a much more diversified phenomenon, relates to a multilateral political world and to the increase of objects, markets and so on into each others countries.
Critics of globalization talk of Westernization. A 2005 UNESCO report showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent from Eastern Asia but . In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European Union's shares of cultural exports declined, while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of North America.
Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as the promotion of corporatist interests.They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities shapes the political policy of countries.[
International Social Forums
The first WSF in 2001 was an initiative of the administration of Porto Alegre in Brazil. The slogan of the World Social Forum was "Another World Is Possible". It was here that the WSF's Charter of Principles was adopted to provide a framework for the forums.
The WSF became a periodic meeting: in 2002 and 2003 it was held again in Porto Alegre and became a rallying point for worldwide protest against the American invasion of Iraq. In 2004 it was moved to Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay, in India), to make it more accessible to the populations of Asia and Africa. This last appointment saw the participation of 75,000 delegates.
In the meantime, regional forums took place following the example of the WSF, adopting its Charter of Principles. The first European Social Forum (ESF) was held in November 2002 in Florence. The slogan was "Against the war, against racism and against neo-liberalism". It saw the participation of 60,000 delegates and ended with a huge demonstration against the war (1,000,000 people according to the organizers). The other two ESFs took place in Paris and London, in 2003 and 2004 respectively.
Recently there has been some discussion behind the movement about the role of the social forums. Some see them as a "popular university", an occasion to make many people aware of the problems of globalization. Others would prefer that delegates concentrate their efforts on the coordination and organization of the movement and on the planning of new campaigns. However it has often been argued that in the dominated countries (most of the world) the WSF is little more than an 'NGO fair' driven by Northern NGOs and donors most of which are hostile to popular movements of the poor.
The "anti-globalization movement" is a term used to describe the political group who oppose the neoliberal version of globalization, while criticisms of globalization are some of the reasons used to justify this group's stance.
"Anti-globalization" may also involve the process or actions taken by a state in order to demonstrate its sovereignty and practice democratic decision-making. Anti-globalization may occur in order to maintain barriers to the international transfer of people, goods and beliefs, particularly free market deregulation, encouraged by organizations such as the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization. Moreover, as Naomi Klein argues in her book No Logo anti-globalism can denote either a single social movement or an umbrella term that encompasses a number of separate social movements such as nationalists and socialists. In either case, participants stand in opposition to the unregulated political power of large, multi-national corporations, as the corporations exercise power through leveraging trade agreements which in some instances damage the democratic rights of citizens, the environment particularly air quality index and rain forests, as well as national government's sovereignty to determine labor rights,including the right to form a union, and health and safety legislation, or laws as they may otherwise infringe on cultural practices and traditions of developing countries.
Some people who are labeled "anti-globalist" or "sceptics" (Hirst and Thompson)consider the term to be too vague and inaccurate. Podobnik states that "the vast majority of groups that participate in these protests draw on international networks of support, and they generally call for forms of globalization that enhance democratic representation, human rights, and egalitarianism."
Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Charlton write:
“
The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of globalization. The term 'anti-globalization' is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents a wide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the anti-globalization movement do support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example, aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.
”
Some members aligned with this viewpoint prefer instead to describe themselves as the "Global Justice Movement", the "Anti-Corporate-Globalization Movement", the "Movement of Movements" (a popular term in Italy), the "Alter-globalization" movement (popular in France), the "Counter-Globalization" movement, and a number of other terms.
Critiques of the current wave of economic globalization typically look at both the damage to the planet, in terms of the perceived unsustainable harm done to the biosphere, as well as the perceived human costs, such as poverty, inequality, miscegenation, injustice and the erosion of traditional culture which, the critics contend, all occur as a result of the economic transformations related to globalization. They challenge directly the metrics, such as GDP, used to measure progress promulgated by institutions such as the World Bank, and look to other measures, such as the Happy Planet Index, created by the New Economics Foundation. They point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal consequences–social disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"which they claim are the unintended but very real consequences of globalization.
The terms globalization and anti-globalization are used in various ways. Noam Chomsky believes that
“
The term "globalization" has been appropriated by the powerful to refer to a specific form of international economic integration, one based on investor rights, with the interests of people incidental. That is why the business press, in its more honest moments, refers to the "free trade agreements" as "free investment agreements" (Wall St. Journal). Accordingly, advocates of other forms of globalization are described as "anti-globalization"; and some, unfortunately, even accept this term, though it is a term of propaganda that should be dismissed with ridicule. No sane person is opposed to globalization, that is, international integration. Surely not the left and the workers movements, which were founded on the principle of international solidarity — that is, globalization in a form that attends to the rights of people, not private power systems.
”
“
The dominant propaganda systems have appropriated the term "globalization" to refer to the specific version of international economic integration that they favor, which privileges the rights of investors and lenders, those of people being incidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different form of international integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "anti-globalist." This is simply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by the most disgusting commissars to refer to dissidents. It is not only vulgar, but idiotic. Take the World Social Forum, called "anti-globalization" in the propaganda system – which happens to include the media, the educated classes, etc., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is a gathering of huge numbers of people from all over the world, from just about every corner of life one can think of, apart from the extremely narrow highly privileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic Forum, and are called "pro-globalization" by the propaganda system. An observer watching this farce from Mars would collapse in hysterical laughter at the antics of the educated classes.
”
Critics argue that:
Poorer countries suffering disadvantages: While it is true that globalization encourages free trade among countries, there are also negative consequences because some countries try to save their national markets. The main export of poorer countries is usually agricultural goods. Larger countries often subsidise their farmers (like the EU Common Agricultural Policy), which lowers the market price for the poor farmer's crops compared to what it would be under free trade.
Exploitation of foreign impoverished workers: The deterioration of protections for weaker nations by stronger industrialized powers has resulted in the exploitation of the people in those nations to become cheap labor. Due to the lack of protections, companies from powerful industrialized nations are able to offer workers enough salary to entice them to endure extremely long hours and unsafe working conditions, though economists question if consenting workers in a competitive employers' market can be decried as "exploited". It is true that the workers are free to leave their jobs, but in many poorer countries, this would mean starvation for the worker, and possible even his/her family if their previous jobs were unavailable.
The shift to outsourcing: The low cost of offshore workers have enticed corporations to buy goods and services from foreign countries. The laid off manufacturing sector workers are forced into the service sector where wages and benefits are low, but turnover is high . This has contributed to the deterioration of the middle class which is a major factor in the increasing economic inequality in the United States . Families that were once part of the middle class are forced into lower positions by massive layoffs and outsourcing to another country. This also means that people in the lower class have a much harder time climbing out of poverty because of the absence of the middle class as a stepping stone. Weak labor unions: The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies in transition has caused a weakening of labor unions in the United States. Unions lose their effectiveness when their membership begins to decline. As a result unions hold less power over corporations that are able to easily replace workers, often for lower wages, and have the option to not offer unionized jobs anymore.
Increase exploitation of child labor: for example, a country that experiencing increases in labor demand because of globalization and an increase the demand for goods produced by children, will experience greater a demand for child labor. This can be "hazardous" or “exploitive”, e.g., quarrying, salvage, cash cropping but also includes the trafficking of children, children in bondage or forced labor, prostitution, pornography and other illicit activities.
In December 2007, World Bank economist Branko Milanovic has called much previous empirical research on global poverty and inequality into question because, according to him, improved estimates of purchasing power parity indicate that developing countries are worse off than previously believed. Milanovic remarks that "literally hundreds of scholarly papers on convergence or divergence of countries’ incomes have been published in the last decade based on what we know now were faulty numbers." With the new data, possibly economists will revise calculations, and he also believed that there are considerable implications estimates of global inequality and poverty levels. Global inequality was estimated at around 65 Gini points, whereas the new numbers indicate global inequality to be at 70 on the Gini scale. It is unsurprising that the level of international inequality is so high, as larger sample spaces almost always give a higher level of inequality.
The critics of globalization typically emphasize that globalization is a process that is mediated according to corporate interests, and typically raise the possibility of alternative global institutions and policies, which they believe address the moral claims of poor and working classes throughout the globe, as well as environmental concerns in a more equitable way.
The movement is very broadincluding church groups, national liberation factions, peasant unionists, intellectuals, artists, protectionists, anarchists, those in support of relocalization and others. Some are reformist, (arguing for a more moderate form of capitalism) while others are more revolutionary (arguing for what they believe is a more humane system than capitalism) and others are reactionary, believing globalization destroys national industry and jobs.
One of the key points made by critics of recent economic globalization is that income inequality, both between and within nations, is increasing as a result of these processes. One article from 2001 found that significantly, in 7 out of 8 metrics, income inequality has increased in the twenty years ending 2001. Also, "incomes in the lower deciles of world income distribution have probably fallen absolutely since the 1980s". Furthermore, the World Bank's figures on absolute poverty were challenged. The article was skeptical of the World Bank's claim that the number of people living on less than $1 a day has held steady at 1.2 billion from 1987 to 1998, because of biased methodology.
A chart that gave the inequality a very visible and comprehensible form, the so-called 'champagne glass' effect,was contained in the 1992 United Nations Development Program Report, which showed the distribution of global income to be very uneven, with the richest 20% of the world's population controlling 82.7% of the world's income.
Distribution of world GDP, 1989
Quintile of Population
Income
Richest 20%
82.7%
Second 20%
11.7%
Third 20%
2.3%
Fourth 20%
2.4%
Poorest 20%
0.2%
Source: United Nations Development Program. 1992 Human Development Report
Economic arguments by fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.
Americanization related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and object being brought into other countries. So globalization, a much more diversified phenomenon, relates to a multilateral political world and to the increase of objects, markets and so on into each others countries.
Critics of globalization talk of Westernization. A 2005 UNESCO report showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent from Eastern Asia but . In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European Union's shares of cultural exports declined, while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of North America.
Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as the promotion of corporatist interests.They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities shapes the political policy of countries.[
International Social Forums
The first WSF in 2001 was an initiative of the administration of Porto Alegre in Brazil. The slogan of the World Social Forum was "Another World Is Possible". It was here that the WSF's Charter of Principles was adopted to provide a framework for the forums.
The WSF became a periodic meeting: in 2002 and 2003 it was held again in Porto Alegre and became a rallying point for worldwide protest against the American invasion of Iraq. In 2004 it was moved to Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay, in India), to make it more accessible to the populations of Asia and Africa. This last appointment saw the participation of 75,000 delegates.
In the meantime, regional forums took place following the example of the WSF, adopting its Charter of Principles. The first European Social Forum (ESF) was held in November 2002 in Florence. The slogan was "Against the war, against racism and against neo-liberalism". It saw the participation of 60,000 delegates and ended with a huge demonstration against the war (1,000,000 people according to the organizers). The other two ESFs took place in Paris and London, in 2003 and 2004 respectively.
Recently there has been some discussion behind the movement about the role of the social forums. Some see them as a "popular university", an occasion to make many people aware of the problems of globalization. Others would prefer that delegates concentrate their efforts on the coordination and organization of the movement and on the planning of new campaigns. However it has often been argued that in the dominated countries (most of the world) the WSF is little more than an 'NGO fair' driven by Northern NGOs and donors most of which are hostile to popular movements of the poor.
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